The emerging role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in cell-to-cell communication and their predominant effect in the paracrine mechanisms of stem cell-dependent actions have prompted several studies on their ability to attenuate both AKI and fibrosis occurring in CKD. We discuss several critical issues that need to be addressed before EVs may have a therapeutic application in humans.For decades, stem cells and their byproducts have shown efficacy in repairing tissues and organs in numerous pre-clinical studies and some clinical trials, providing hope for possible cures for many important diseases. However, the translation of stem cell therapy for heart diseases from bench to bed is still hampered by several limitations. The therapeutic benefits of stem cells are mediated by a combo of mechanisms. In this review, we will provide a brief summary of stem cell therapies for ischemic heart disease. Basically, we will talk about these barriers for the clinical application of stem cell-based therapies, the investigation of mechanisms behind stem-cell based cardiac regeneration and also, what bioengineers can do and have been doing on the translational stage of stem cell therapies for heart repair.Helicobacter pylori (H. https://www.selleckchem.com/products/gdc6036.html pylori) are gram-negative bacteria that are able to colonize and persist in the stomach. Gastric cancer is tightly linked to chronic infection with this bacterium. Research over the last decades has illuminated the molecular interactions between H. pylori and host cells. It is now well established that H. pylori have multiple sophisticated means to adhere to epithelial cells and to manipulate their behavior. This interaction with the epithelium can lead to altered cell signaling, DNA damage and aberrant epithelial immunity. H. pylori are known to colonize the mucus layer of the stomach and surface epithelial cells. In addition, it has recently become clear that they can also penetrate the glands and directly interact with specialized epithelial cells deep in the glands. Understanding the biogeography of infection is important because gastric epithelial glands are composed of various types of short-lived differentiated cells that are constantly regenerated by a limited pool of long-lived stem cells located in base of gastric glands. Recent advances in gastric stem cell research not only led to identification of stem cell populations using specific markers but has also uncovered specific regulatory pathways and principles that govern gastric stem cell behavior and regeneration. Particularly, the stem cell state is largely dependent on signals from the niche cells that surround the stem cell compartment. The subpopulation of H. pylori that colonizes in the stem cell compartment triggers specific inflammatory responses and drives epithelial pathology. Colonization of gastric glands induces responses of the stem cell niche, simultaneously enhancing the cell turnover kinetics and driving the formation of antimicrobial cells in the gland base. These data reveal the high plasticity of the epithelium and its ability to adapt to the environment, which is necessary to regenerate and counterbalance infection, but simultaneously lays the grounds for development of gastric pathology and carcinogenesis.Alcoholic liver diseases (ALD) are a wide spectrum of liver diseases caused by excessive alcohol consumption, from steatosis to cirrhosis. The pathogenesis of ALD is insufficiently understood, but mainly involves oxidative stress, inflammation, bacterial translocation, cell death, and impaired regeneration. Despite numerous attempts to improve patient prognosis, the treatment of advanced ALD is still based on abstinence, brief exposure to corticosteroids, or liver transplantation. However, poor response to corticosteroids and the shortage of liver donors leaves patients helpless towards the end stages. Advances in basic research have contributed to a better understanding of ALD pathophysiology, which offers new options for treatment. In recent years, several therapies related to liver regeneration have been tested with promising prospects, including molecule-induced liver regeneration, stem cell transplantation, and full-function 3D artificial liver assembly. This review discusses mechanisms underlying ALD that can be considered therapeutic targets for regeneration-based treatments.The only curative treatment for severe end-stage liver disease (ESLD) is liver transplantation (LT) but it is limited by the shortage of organ donors. The increase of the incidence of liver disease has led to develop new therapeutic approaches such as liver cell transplantation. Current challenges that limit a wider application of this therapy include a limited cell source and the poor engraftment in the host liver of cryopreserved hepatocytes after thawing. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) that can be differentiated into hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) are being widely explored as an alternative to human hepatocytes because of their unlimited proliferation capacity and their potential ability to avoid the immune system. Their large-scale production could provide a new tool to produce enough HLCs for treating patients with metabolic diseases, acute liver failure (ALF), those with ESLD or patients not considered for organ transplantation. In this review we discuss current challenges for generating differentiated cells compatible with human application as well as in-depth safety evaluation. This analysis highlights the uncertainties and deficiencies that should be addressed before their clinical use but also points out the potential benefits that will produce a great impact in the field of hepatology.Liver disease is a major health issue which present poor clinical treatment performance. Cirrhosis and liver failure are common clinical manifestations of liver diseases. Liver transplantation is recognized as the ultimate and most efficient therapy to the end stage of liver disease. But it was limited by the shortage of honor organs and high cost. Nowadays, stem cell therapy gained more and more attention due to its attractive efficacy in treating liver disease especially in cirrhosis during the clinical trials. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) can be differentiated into hepatocytes, promote liver regeneration, inhibit liver fibrosis and induce liver apoptosis, particularly via paracrine mechanisms. This review will highlight recent clinical applications of MSC, providing the available evidence and discussing some unsolved questions in treating liver disease.